STANDARD COURSE OF STUDY

APPENDIX E

GLOSSARY

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

 

advance organizer	A graphic representation of the major points that assist learners in the comprehension and organization of information from a selection.
alphabetic principle	The precept upon which written language is based: that letters represent sounds.
alternative assessment	assessment An evaluation other than standardized testing. Alternative assessment may include portfolios, reading folders, interviews, self-evaluations, anecdotal records of observations, book lists, and performance-based samples.
argumentative communication	Written, spoken or visual creation that involves defining issues and proposing reasonable resolutions.
argumentative writing	One of the four chief composition modes. Its purpose is to convince a reader or listener by establishing the truth or falsity of a proposition.
assessment	1. The act or process of gathering data in order to better understand the strengths and weaknesses of learning and to plan instruction as by observation, testing, interviews, etc. 2. Judgments or evaluations made after data are gathered and analyzed.
audience	The collection of intended readers, listeners, or viewers for a particular work or performance. An audience may be physically present (for example, in the case of a dramatic performance) or separated by time and distance (in the case of written texts).

{Back to Top}

balanced reading program	Dual in emphasis, stress on both acquisition of skills and application of program skills. A balanced beginning reading program includes instruction in word identification skills as well as instruction in reading comprehension strategies. Components of a balanced program include reading to whole groups of students, guided reading activities with groups of students, shared reading with groups of students, and independent reading by individual students.
basal reader series	Textbooks designed to promote increasing competence in reading. Selections usually have controlled vocabulary, controlled readability levels, and selected presentation of skills. Contents often include scope and sequence charts, specific directions for teachers, student workbooks, end-of-unit tests, and end-of-book tests.
big books .	Enlarged texts of children's fiction and nonfiction books used in shared reading and other activities to develop reading concepts and strategies.

{Back to Top}

chapter book	A book long enough to be divided into chapters but not long or complex enough to be considered a novel.
coherence of text	The subjective interpretation by the reader of the extent to which ideas in text appear to "hang together" in a clear, unified pattern.
cohesiveness of text	The links or ties that connect text elements to provide unity and clarity within or between sentences and contribute to the reader's impression of text coherence.
collaborative learning	Activities in which students work together in groups to achieve a common goal or product.
communication environment	Settings for exchanging information that necessitate communicating with clarity, purpose, and a sense of audience.
consonant blends	Two or more consonant letters (next-door neighbors). The sounds they represent are blended together when pronounced, as the pl in plant and the str in stream.
consonant digraphs	Combinations of two consonant letters that represent one sound (e.g., sh, ch).
context	1. The sounds, words, or phrases adjacent to a spoken or written language unit; linguistic environment. 2. The social or cultural situation in which a spoken or written message occurs.
context clue(s)	1. Information from the immediate textual setting that helps identify a word or word group including phrases, sentences, illustrations, syntax, typography, etc. 2. The syntactic and semantic information in the surrounding words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs in a text. Additionally, the background knowledge readers bring to reading, reader's purposes for reading, and the conditions under which material is read all contribute to the reading context. When readers meet unfamiliar words, context cues narrow down the possible word choices, thereby making word identification more efficient.
contextual analysis	The search for the meaning of an unknown word through an examination of its use in context.
convention	An accepted practice in a spoken or written language.
creative thinking	The ability to form new combinations of ideas to fulfill a need or to obtain original and otherwise appropriate results.
critical communication	Written, spoken, or visual creation which involves interpreting, proposing, evaluating, and judging.
critical thinking	Logical, reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do. It may include analyzing arguments, seeing other points of view, and/or reaching conclusions.
cross-check	A strategy readers use to check one source of information against another (e.g., graphophonic, syntactic, semantic).
cues/cueing systems	Sources of information used by readers to construct meaning. The language cueing systems include the graphophonic system&emdash;the relationships between oral and written language (phonics); the syntactic system&emdash;the relationship among linguistic units such as prefixes, suffixes, words, phrases, clauses, and word order (grammar); and the semantic system&emdash;the meaning system of language.

{Back to Top}

decodable text	Text written for beginning readers to provide practice in specific phonics elements.
decode	To analyze spoken or graphic symbols of a familiar language to ascertain their intended meaning.
diagnosis	Assessment of the strengths and weaknesses including the planning of instruction based on diagnostic information.
dialogue journals	Two-way written communication between two or more persons, in which individuals share their thoughts and write reactions to each other's messages.
diphthongs	Two vowels that represent sounds that are glided together during pronunciation, as the ow in cow, oi in oil, ou in out, and oy in boy.
direct instruction	Teacher-directed instruction provided to teach specific information or processes to students (e.g., guided reading, mini-lessons).

{Back to Top}

emergent literacy	Development of the association of print with meaning that begins early in a child's life and continues until the child reaches the stage of conventional reading and writing.
empirical scientific research	Experimental and quasi-experimental designs (where variables are manipulated and their effects upon other variables observed) as well as other forms of research recognized by the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation. Research should be comprehensive and thorough, test different theories against each other, be longitudinal in order to look at different variables over time, have controlled variables, and be capable of being replicated (Eichelberger, 1989; Mitzel, 1982).
encode	To change a message in one set of symbols into another set of symbols.
engagement	The phase of the communication process in which the learner checks for understanding, monitors comprehension, uses fix-up strategies, and gives complete attention to the task.
environmental print	Print and other graphic symbols, in addition to books, that are found in the physical environment, as street signs, billboards, television commercials, building signs, etc. Note: Environmental print affords opportunities for learners in early phases of emerging literacy to discover and explore the nature and functions of graphic symbols as conveyors of meaning.
expressive communication	Written, spoken, or visual creation that reveals or explores thoughts, feelings, and observations.

{Back to Top}

fiction	Imaginative literary, oral, or visual works representing invented, rather than actual, persons, places, and events. Some widely recognized types of fiction include mystery, romance, and adventure.
five-minute write	A time during which students write for five minutes without interruption about a particular topic or to answer a question. Sometimes called fast write or burst writing.

{Back to Top}

generalization	A broad statement derived from or showing a relationship to specifics. Main idea and theme are examples.
genre	A category used to classify literary and other works, usually by form, technique, or content, (e.g., fiction, nonfiction, drama, poetry).
grammar	The means by which the different components of language can be put together in groups of sound and written or visual symbols so that ideas, feelings, and images can be communicated; what one knows about the structure and use of one's own language that leads to its creative and communicative use.
grapheme	A written or printed representation of a phoneme, as b /b/ and oy for /b/ and /oi/ in boy. Note: In English, a grapheme may be a single letter or a group of letters. It includes all the ways in which the phoneme may be written or printed.
grapheme-phoneme correspondence	The relationship between a grapheme and the phoneme(s) its correspondence represents; letter-sound correspondence, as c representing /k/ in cat and /s/ in cent. Phonics as a teaching device in reading instruction concerns grapheme-phoneme correspondences&emdash;that is, how to pronounce words seen in print.
graphic organizer	A visual map of vocabulary and/or concepts and their relationships designed to assist learners in comprehending selections. Examples are timelines, diagrams, flow charts, outlines, and semantic maps.
graphophonic cues	1. Learner's knowledge of the relationship between written language and the sounds of spoken language (symbol sound). A learner would ask the question, "Does the word sound and look right?" 2. One of the three types of cues readers use to construct meaning; the relationships between written and spoken language (phonics). Referring to the relationship between the orthography and phonology of a language.
guided reading	Reading instruction in which the teacher provides the structure and purpose for reading and for responding to the material read.

{Back to Top}

high-frequency word	A word that appears many more times than most other words in spoken or written language. Note: Basic word lists generally provide words ranked in order of their frequency of occurrence as calculated from a sample of written or spoken text suitable for the level of intended use.
holistic scoring/evaluation	A method of evaluating the quality of a finished piece of writing by assigning score points based on general merit. A variation is focused holistic scoring/evaluation, a method of evaluating the quality of a finished piece of writing based on pre-determined criteria.

{Back to Top}

imagery	1. The process or result of forming mental images while reading or listening to a story, viewing a film, etc. 2. The use of language to create sensory impressions.
indirect instruction	Instruction provided as part of a process (e.g., independent reading, buddy reading, sustained-silent reading, computer-assisted instruction).
inference	A judgment or conclusion derived from information.
informational communication	Written, spoken or visual creation that involves giving information to explain realities or ideas.

{Back to Top}

journal

A less private form of diary. It is more readily shared, allows more flexibility, and is more adaptable as a teaching tool. It is especially useful when used to elicit personal responses to reading, issues, and events under study.

{Back to Top}

language experience	An approach to learning to read in which the student's or group's own words or oral compositions are written down and used as materials of instruction.
learning log	A subject journal that gives the students an opportunity to respond to new information presented in class, to explore their thoughts and feelings about class discussions and group work, and to react to reading assignments. Learners can evaluate their individual progress as they work on long-range projects and reports; can keep track of important facts, concepts, and vocabulary words; and can use their logs to review for major tests.
letter clusters	Any group of letters within a word which a reader perceives as a unit (e.g., "-ing, ch, th, thr, ea, oa, eir").
letter-sound generalizations	Consistent patterns in written language which represent particular sounds.
leveled books	Books grouped and graded for difficulty based on specific text characteristics.
literature	Print and non-print texts that provide a deeply engaging aesthetic experience.
literature anthology	Collection of literature.
literature-based reading	Reading that uses literature as primary material in reading programs and as a springboard to different subjects such as health, science, and social studies and to other media such as newspapers, magazines, and catalogs.
literature-extension activities	Activities designed to enable learners to respond to and deepen/broaden understanding of a selection. These activities may include rereading for different purposes, retelling of stories, comparison charts, illustrating favorite scenes and characters, or acting out a story.
long vowels	Sounds in words that are heard in letter names, such as the a in ape, e in feet, i in ice, o in road, and u in mule.

{Back to Top}

mapping	A strategy in which the relationship among information in the text is put in diagram form in order to clarify, stimulate thinking, or strengthen memory.
media	The various physical means through which information may be communicated or aesthetic forms created, (e.g., newspapers, film, books, computer software, painting).
metacognition	Awareness and control of one's thinking. Awareness of specific thinking and learning strategies and when to apply them.
morpheme structure	Smallest unit of meaning (e.g., book, ful, pre, s', ing). A free morpheme can stand alone (ex: book, rose). A bound morpheme needs another morpheme to make a word (e.g., pre, ful, ness).
multimedia	The use of more than one medium; for example, a multimedia research paper might include a written report, photographs, computer-generated charts, and audio-taped interviews.

{Back to Top}

narrative (narrative writing)	Text in any form that recounts events or series of events or tells a story. Forms of narrative include personal and imaginative.
non-print medium/text	Any medium/text that creates meaning through sound or images or both, such as photographs, drawings, collages, films, videos, computer graphics, speeches, oral poems and tales, and songs.

{Back to Top}

onsets	The consonant(s) that come(s) at the beginning of syllables and precede(s) the vowel. Onsets can consist of one, two, or three consonants, as the s in see, the st in stay, and the str in street.
orthography	The study of the nature and use of symbols in a writing system; a conventional writing system in a given language.

{Back to Top}

phoneme	The smallest sound segments that differentiate one word from another. For example, the word "man" has three phonemes /m/, /a/, and /n/. Some phonemes are represented by combinations of letters (e.g., /th/, /sh/), and some letters represent more than one phoneme (e.g., c, g, a, e, i, o, u).
phonemic awareness	The realization that spoken language is made up of word, rhyme, syllable, and sound segments, and the conscious ability to consciously arrange and rearrange these segments.
phonic generalization	A statement or rule that indicates under which condition(s) a letter or group of letters represents a particular sound or sounds, as a silent e at the end of a word usually indicates that the preceding vowel sound is long, as the a in fate.
phonics	The system of sound-letter relationships used in reading and writing. The study of the relationship between the letters in written words and the sounds in spoken words.
phonogram	1. In word recognition, a letter sequence comprised of a vowel and one or more ending consonants (e.g.,-ed in red, bed, fed, or -ake in bake, cake, lake). 2. The printed symbol of one or more letters representing one speech sound in a given word (e.g., b, d, p, ch, er, sh, igh, dge, eigh, ough).
phonology	The study of speech sounds and their functions in a language.
picture book	A book in which the illustrations are as important as the text, and the telling of the story. Note: Picture books are often among the first books introduced to children and are usually intended to be read aloud or told to children.
picture cues	The cues to meaning that learners glean from the illustrations in books.
point of view	The way in which an author reveals his or her perspective/viewpoint, as in characters, events, and ideas in telling a story.
portfolio	A collection of examples of a student's work which may be used for evaluation and information.
phonemic awareness	The realization that spoken language is made up of word, rhyme, syllable, and sound segments, and the conscious ability to consciously arrange and rearrange these segments.
predictable books	Picture books characterized by predictable story lines and the repetition of phrases and rhythm and/or rhyme which enable children to make predictions about content.
prefixes	Meaningful parts attached to the beginning of words, such as re + play = replay and un + cover = uncover.
preparation	The initial phase of the communication process in which a learner previews the text, draws upon background knowledge, sets purpose for activity, and focuses on the task.
print	Any text that creates meaning through writing, such as books, stories, reports, essays, poems, play script, notes, and letters. Print texts may also be produced and circulated electronically.
print awareness	Awareness of the characteristics and conventions of written language including the concepts that 1) written language is distinct from speech, conveys meaning, and is written from left-to-right and top-to-bottom in English; 2) print in the form of words corresponds to speech; and 3) white space marks the boundaries of printed words.
print text	Any text that creates meaning through written language such as books, stories, reports, essays, poems, play scripts, notes, and letters.
prior knowledge	Knowledge and experience related to a topic a reader/writer brings to the task.
punctuation	An orthographic system that separates linguistic units, clarifies meaning, and can be used by writers and readers to give speech characteristics to written material.
purpose	The reason people are using the language arts to communicate.

{Back to Top}

quasi-experimental

A research design that considerably limits the generalizability of any findings in the sense that the design does not control all but a single variable. Because of the complexities of the learning-teaching situation, most educational research is quasi-experimental in design.

{Back to Top}

r-controlled vowels	Occur when a vowel in a syllable precedes an r which modifies the vowel sound, as the ar in car, the er in serve, the ir in first, the or in forest, and the ur in fur.
reader's workshop	Instructional time that includes sharing literature, conducting mini-lessons, having conferences about what the learners have read, and giving time for learners to share what they have read as a whole group or individually.
reading log	A notebook that contains comments and personal responses to the individual selections a learner has read.
reading strategy	1. A systematic plan for achieving a specific goal or result. 2. A practiced but flexible way of responding to reading demands.
receptive language	Language and vocabulary which are learned from the environment by viewing, listening, and reading.
recode	To change a message from one code to another as in recoding oral language into writing, or reading into words.
recursive process	Moving back and forth through a text in either reading or writing, as new ideas are developed or problems encountered. In reading a text, recursive processes might include rereading earlier portions in light of later ones, looking ahead to see what topics are addressed or how a narrative ends, and skimming through text to search for particular ideas or events before continuing reading. In creating a written composition, recursive processes include moving back and forth among the planning, drafting, and revising phases of writing.
reflection	The process of seriously thinking over one's experiences.
representing	The presentation aspect of viewing. It is the nonverbal depiction of communication.
response	The phase of the communication process which involves summarizing, reflecting, and evaluating what has been read, written, heard, spoken, represented, or viewed.
response journal	A notebook or folder in which students record their personal reactions to, questions about, and reflections on what they read, view, listen to, and discuss in addition to how they actually go about reading, writing, viewing, listening, and discussing.
retelling	1. Restating a story or information in one's own words. 2. A measure of reading comprehension. Note: The purpose of retelling is to gain insight into the reader's ability to interact with, interpret, and draw conclusions from the text.
rhetoric	The study of the theory and principles of effective communication.
rhyme	Identical or very similar recurring final sounds in words within or, more often, at the ends of lines of verse.
rhyme awareness	The realization that spoken words contain rhyming sounds. Learners who are aware of the rhymes in words can separate rhyming sounds from words, identify rhyming sounds, and give examples of rhyming sounds and words.
rime(s)	1. A vowel and any following consonants of a syllable, as /ook/ in book or brook, /ik/ in strike, and /a/ in play. 2. The sounds heard at the end of syllables and are made up of the vowel and any subsequent consonants. Words that share rimes, such as the at in cat and hat, rhyme.

{Back to Top}

scaffolding	The support a teacher initially gives to students by assisting and supporting aspects of the learning tasks until students can function independently.
schema (schemata)	A cognitive structure (mental map/file) composed of integrated experience and knowledge which includes the learner's background, beliefs, attitudes, and skills.
self-monitoring	1. Self-checking of one's understanding of text. 2. In reading, the conscious awareness of comprehending the text, marked by self-questioning, reading, and reflection on that text. 3. In writing, the conscious awareness of the progress of the text, marked by rereading and reflection on features of the text needed to communicate effectively to an audience.
semantic cues (semantics)	1. The meaningful relationships among words in phrases, sentences, and paragraphs. Semantic context cues are the basis on which readers decide if an author's message is logical and represents real-world events, relationships, and phenomena. When readers use semantic context cues, they ask themselves, "Does this make sense?" 2. One of the three cueing systems readers use to construct texts. The semantic system focuses on the meaning of texts, where meaning is seen as connections between words (or other linguistic units) and the reader's prior knowledge of language and linguistic forms, understanding of the world, and experience of other texts and contexts.
semantic map	A visual strategy for vocabulary expansion and extension of knowledge by displaying, in categories, words related to other words.
shared reading	1. A method which capitalizes on the storytime experience by involving students in a wide variety of experiences with a book. 2. An instructional strategy in which the teacher involves a group of young children in the reading of a particular big book in order to help them learn aspects of beginning literacy and develop reading strategies (e.g., decoding skills or prediction).
short vowels	Represent the sound of the a in apple, the e in end, the i in igloo, the o in odd, and the u in bus. Though other combinations may also be classified as short, these five are typically considered when teachers and learners explore short vowels.
spelling	The process of representing language by means of a writing system or orthography.
SQ3R (survey, question, read, recite, review)	A study technique through which students survey the text to be read, generate questions based on headings and illustrations, read the material, record major points for later reference, recite what they have learned, and then review the material and their notes.
standard English	That variety of English in which most educational texts and government and media publication are written in the United States. English as it is expected to be used by people in the mainstream of business, economic, professional, and social environments.
story grammar	The organization of the story. The parts include articulation of the main character's goals, a delineation of the sequence of his or her attempts to achieve these goals, a resolution of the story conflict, and the major character's reaction to the resolution.
strategy	A systematic plan for achieving a specific goal or result.
structural analysis	A process to identify a word by using knowledge of syllables, suffixes, prefixes, root words, contractions, compound words, and other word parts and word forms.
suffixes	Meaningful parts attached to the end of words, such as the play + ing = playing and slow + ly = slowly.
syllables	Units of pronunciation that include a vowel sound. All words have at least one syllable. To find out how many syllables there are in any word, count the number of vowels you hear as you say the word aloud.
syntactic cues (syntax)	1. The way language is structured and ordered within sentences. 2. Knowledge about word order, the grammatical structure of the language, or the arrangement of textual elements. A learner's use of the syntactic cueing system answers the question, "Does it sound like language?"
systematic	Deliberate plan for instruction. According to a system, not random or haphazard.

{Back to Top}

temporary spelling	A young child's attempt to spell words as he or she is learning to read and write. These spellings reflect generalizations about written language and the child's current level of understanding of letter-sound relationships.
text	Printed communications in their varied forms; oral communications, including conversations, speeches, etc.; and visual communications such as film, video, and computer displays.
thematic units	Units of study designed around a central topic, problem, question, or issue.
think-aloud	To verbalize what is thought while reading, writing, or representing.
thinking processes	Relatively complex and time-consuming cognitive operations, such as concept formation, problem solving, and composing.
thinking skills	Relatively specific cognitive operations that can be considered the "building blocks" of thinking. Specific examples are information gathering, organizing, analyzing, and evaluating skills.
trade book	1. Fiction and nonfiction books other than literature anthologies and basal readers. 2. In the United States and Canada, for example, a book published for sale to the general public. 3. Commercial books, other than basal readers, that are used for reading instruction.

{Back to Top}

vowel digraph

A spelling pattern in which two or more adjoining letters represent a single vowel sound, as eigh for /a/ in sleigh, ea for /e/ in bread, or aw for /o/ in saw.

{Back to Top}

word recognition	The quick and easy identification of the form, pronunciation, and appropriate meaning of a word previously met in print or writing. Word identification is the process of determining the pronunciation and some degree of meaning of a familiar or new word in written or printed form.
writer's workshop	Instructional time that includes mini-lessons, peer/teacher conferences, process writing, sharing time, author's chair, sustained silent reading, and small teaching groups.
writing folder	A folder or notebook that contains writing generated during the various stages in the writing process.
writing strategy	A systematic plan for achieving a specific goal or result. The writing process or specific writing skills become strategic when writers can apply them independently and purposefully.

{Back to Top}

Adapted from:

Fox, Barbara J. Strategies for Word Identification: Phonics from a New Perspective. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Merrill, 1996.

Harris, T.L. and Hodges, R.E. The Literacy Dictionary. Newark, Delaware. International Reading Association, 1995.

Standards for the English Language Arts. Urbana, Illinois. National Council of Teachers of English, 1996.

<< Back | Table of Contents | Next >>